Space Strategic Foresight Implications for National and United States Space Force (USSF) Action

A Summary from the Headquarters (HQ) USSF S6 Space Futures Workshops

Dr. Joel B. Mozer, USSF, Director of Science, Technology and Research (ret.)

Dr. David A. Hardy, Associate Deputy Undersecretary of the Air Force (Space) (ret.)

Dr. Gabriele Rizzo, Longviews, Inc.

Dr. Merri J. Sanchez, The Aerospace Corporation

21 January 2025

Table of Contents

1 – Title Page

2 – Table of Contents

3 – Executive Summary

7 – Introduction

10 – The Accelerating Geostrategic Importance of Space

15 – The Dual Mandate for the Space Force After Next

19 – The Role of Commercial Space and the Industrial Base  

22 – U.S. Space S&T Preeminence

32 – Conclusion

33 – Appendix A – Space Futures Methodology and Structure

36 – Appendix B – The Critical Role of Commercial Space and the U.S. Space Industrial Base in Achieving the Dual Mandate

41 – Appendix C – Footnotes

42 – Appendix D – Acronym Sheet

Executive Summary

The United States (U.S.) faces significant and growing challenges in maintaining space preeminence as space becomes increasingly central to national power, not only for the U.S. and its allies but also for its rivals and potential adversaries. Our inevitable future contains an ever-expanding number of state and non-state space actors operating over a growing spatial extent through Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) and across Cislunar space, the area of space that extends from Earth to the moon, including the moon’s surface and orbits, and beyond (xGEO). The future of space will see a rapid expansion of actors and activities, ranging from tens of thousands of satellites in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) to increased human presence in space for exploration, commerce, and tourism. Additionally, advancements in space logistics, manufacturing, and resource extraction are expected to reshape the landscape dramatically. Over the next several decades, we see the potential for:

• Tens of thousands of satellites across LEO to GEO supporting communications, internet, position, navigation and timing, and terrestrial observations.
• Global access to affordable, on-demand space launch capabilities.
• Significant advances in space mobility, with improved speed, range, and agility.
• A growing human presence in space benefiting science, exploration, settlement, commerce, and tourism.
• Widely available space logistics, enabling refueling, repair, resupply, upgrade, and assembly of various systems.
• In-space manufacturing to support exploration, in-space, and terrestrial needs.
• The construction of large space structures for power generation, sensor arrays, and habitats.
• Expansion of commercial, civil, and military space systems through GEO to the moon and beyond.
• On orbit research and development to advance human understanding in science and engineering under space environments.
• Resource extraction and exploitation from the moon and asteroids to support space development and potentially export to Earth.

This report outlines critical observations and recommendations from the USSF three-year strategic foresight effort. The goal is to guide the DoD and USSF in developing flexible and agile strategies that balance immediate and near-term challenges with long-term preparations for an increasingly complex, dynamic, and uncertain future in space.  

The Space Futures process provides a structured framework to examine potential future space scenarios and identify critical actions that must be taken now to ensure continued U.S. strategic space preeminence in an evolving space landscape.  By anticipating future scenarios and challenges we can identify emerging opportunities to secure U.S. space leadership space and protect our critical space systems.

Four Central Observations & Recommended Actions

1. Space as a Common Domain    

Space has passed a tipping point, transitioning from a domain of restricted, mostly government, use, to one of widespread activity across commercial, civil, and military sectors. This shift significantly increases space’s contribution to national power and is an increasingly dominant element for military operations centered in terrestrial and space domains. While the trajectory of space development is uncertain, space preeminence will pose ongoing challenges to U.S. power and interests.  To meet these challenges, the U.S. must ensure a process to monitor and adapt to these evolving challenges and opportunities. The USSF must develop strategies to shape and prepare for this future.

Key Actions:

• Expand the Space Futures strategic foresight process and integrate it into related efforts at the DoD and interagency to ensure it strengthens national power with insights into strategies, investments, and global engagement related to the space domain.
• Integrate the findings within the Space Futures Command as it drives force design into the future through integrating analysis and prioritizing the technology needs to usher in revolutionary warfighting concepts and technologies.
• Codify the foresight process in a USSF operational instruction to ensure its sustained role in shaping strategy.
• Include allied powers, commercial, academic, and adversary capability and insight into the Space Futures process.

2. USSF/DoD Must Fulfill a Dual Mandate

As space capabilities evolve, the USSF must fulfill a dual mandate to simultaneously support both terrestrial-based military operations and space-centered operations, including those that affect adversary space capabilities. This means supporting joint military actions on Earth while also preparing to operate across GEO and into Cislunar space, where assets and threats will grow in number and complexity. The “Space Force After Next” of the mid-2040s and beyond will require a significantly different force structure, capabilities, and operations. This includes a growing number of assets to protect, increasingly maneuverable systems, and continuously evolving threats and countermeasures.  Most current and planned architectures will not provide the Space Force After Next with the necessary capabilities to execute the dual mandate.  Importantly, for current leaders and architects, it takes time to develop new paradigms, and the groundwork for the long term must be started today.

Continued space growth that supports U.S. needs and interests critically depends on establishing space norms of behavior and international rules of law today. Continued space preeminence by the U.S. and its allies is central if they shape those norms and laws to support interests through political, security, and economic values.

Key Actions:

• The USSF must embrace this dual mandate, supporting joint military operations while ensuring the protection of U.S. and allied space interests as they grow in economic importance and as part of critical national and international infrastructure.
• Integrate the Space Futures strategic foresight process and its observations and recommendations into mid to long-term requirements generation and architecture development, and technology needs prioritizations.
• Develop future operating concepts based on the results of the foresight process to guide the evolution of the USSF into 2045 with a flexible and adaptable force structure.
• Balance current investments and risk management trades between today’s force structure and operations, and those needed for the Space Force After Next and beyond.
• Balance focus and investment across the dual mandate of supporting terrestrial and space operations, multi-domains, and multi-time horizons, avoiding over-focus on today’s familiar terrestrial missions while preparing for broader future space operations.
• Build and maintain forward-looking relationships with existing and emerging space-faring nations to foster cooperation and future alliances.

3. Growth of Commercial Space as a Component of National Power

The role of commercial space in military operations will expand as commercial systems continue to provide greater capabilities, lower-cost launches, and space logistics support.  This commercial growth also makes commercial space infrastructure a critical national asset that must be defended or selectively denied to an adversary.  The World Economic Forum predicts that the space economy will become a $1.8 trillion enterprise by 2025. Military and strategic advantage will come to nations that best cultivate and integrate commercial space into their national defense strategies.

Key Actions:

• Improve communication and collaboration between DoD/USSF and industry on needs and constraints to enhance mutually beneficial partnerships. 
• Jointly develop improved analytical tools to optimize the role of commercial space in meeting government needs.
• Protect U.S. commercial space interests, including operations through GEO and beyond, including through architecture, technology, and policy.

4. U.S. Space Science and Technology is Essential to Maintaining Space Preeminence

The rapid advancements in applications of Space Science and Technology (S&T) have driven the growth of space capabilities and will continue to shape the trajectory of global space operations. However, the U.S. faces increasing competition and investments from other nations; maintaining leadership in space S&T is crucial for ensuring U.S. space preeminence.

Key Actions: 

• Collaborate with the Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Space Acquisition and Integration and Office of the Secretary of Defense to develop and execute a military space S&T strategy that balances evolutionary and revolutionary advances, prepares for technological surprises, and fosters cooperation across government, industry, academia, and allies.
• Focus investments on revolutionary capabilities, including artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), quantum processes, material advances, robotics, additive manufacturing, biology, human cognitive science, and human-machine interface to enhance future military space operations.
• Establish the Space Futures strategic foresight process guide mid- to long-term space S&T priorities.

Introduction

Victorious warriors win first and then go to war, while defeated warriors go to war first and then seek to win.

• Sun Tzu, The Art of War¹

Prediction is difficult, especially about the future.

• Nils Bohr²

Goal

This report summarizes the results of a comprehensive three-year USSF Space Futures strategic foresight process. This effort was executed to examine the rapidly evolving and increasing challenges to U.S. space preeminence, both present and future, and to offer strategies and actions that are agile and adaptable enough to maintain U.S. preeminence.

Motivation

Within the last decade, space has crossed the tipping point, transforming from a restricted domain with limited users to an essential contributor to national power and an ever-growing domain of human activity. Space is no longer just a support element for terrestrial military operations but is becoming a dominant factor in global military, commercial, and civil activities, resulting in a reshaped strategic landscape. Although the beginning of the Space Age is often dated to the October 1957 launch of Sputnik³, the developments in the last 10 years were more dramatic and consequential. This dramatic change in space activity in the previous 10 years has been marked by:

• Exponential growth in space-based capabilities: The number and sophistication of commercial, civil, and military space systems have increased dramatically.
• Broader participation in space: Space capabilities are no longer limited to just a few powerful nations; governments, private companies, and even non-state actors are getting involved.
• Expanding operational zones: Space operations are no longer confined to LEO; they now reach GEO, Cislunar space, and beyond.
• From restriction to accessibility: Space is now widely used by various actors, making it essential for national power and military operations.
• From ancillary to dominant: Space is no longer a secondary support domain but a central component of military strategy and national security.
• Accelerated development:  The last ten years have witnessed unprecedented growth in space technology and capabilities, including:
  • A dramatic increase in the number and sophistication of space assets across commercial, civil, and military sectors.
  • A proliferation of these assets among global, governmental, and non-state players.
  • An expanding domain of operations extending from LEO to the Moon and beyond, reaching the edges of the Solar System.

Given the exponential rate of change, predicting or controlling the future is impossible.  However, in this new era of space activity, U.S. space preeminence is more important—and more challenging—than ever before. To retain leadership, the U.S. must develop flexible, agile, and forward-looking strategies that maximize our ability to effectively shape, where possible, and adapt to, where necessary, the future trajectory of space. 

History provides many examples of the consequences of failing to anticipate, respond, and adapt to changes in geopolitics, economics, culture, military power, and science and technology. Many of these had devastating consequences, and the same lessons apply to space.

Examples include:

• The allied forces in World War II faced challenges in anticipating the effective combination of mobility and radio communication that powered Blitzkrieg warfare.
• The U.S. underestimated North Vietnam’s resilience in responding to the gradual increase in U.S. forces during the Vietnam War.
• The Soviet Union’s inability to foresee the collapse of its centrally controlled economy and the subsequent loss of control over Eastern Europe.

These examples highlight the consequences of failing to foresee critical shifts.  Today, the U.S. faces a similar need to anticipate and prepare for the rapid evolution of space.  Ensuring foresight for the space domain is a responsibility of the USSF as the service tasked to “secure our Nation’s interests in, from, and to space”⁴ in support of joint doctrine to enable Expanded Maneuver through Contested Logistics, Joint Fires, All Domain Command and Control (C2) and Information Advantage.⁵ The USSF’s foresight process is designed to systematically analyze potential space futures and guide the U.S. in shaping and preparing for those outcomes.

Process

A strategic foresight process was designed to develop strategies that would guide the U.S. through an uncertain space future.  Using structured methods and approaches developed with the assistance of North Atlantic Treaty Organization and world-class experts, this process systematically examines the potential space future trajectories, their geostrategic and military implications, and the necessary actions to prepare for and shape those futures.  This process addresses:

• The potential space trajectories the U.S. might face.
• The questions these trajectories raise regarding U.S. national and defense space interests.
• The challenges in addressing these questions.
• The required actions across policy, engagement, force development, operations, and supporting S&T to enhance the U.S.’s ability to address these.

The process involved three seasons of workshops, with detailed discussions of future scenarios, military operations, and space S&T roadmaps, all aimed at shaping the Space Force After Next of 2045 and beyond (Appendix A).

• Season 1: Focused on long-term archetypes for 2060, including key actors and implications for U.S. national power and military capabilities.
• Season 2: Developed geostrategic scenarios for 2045 and examined the military space operations necessary to support U.S. national interests. This included:
  • Determined force design options for the 2045 Space Force After Next, in terms of missions, capabilities, and operations including required supporting S&T.
  • Assessed the scenarios and military operations with the intelligence community to ensure alignment with future threat understanding.
  • Evaluated the role of the U.S. space industrial base and key trends in space S&T to USSF of the future.
• Season 3: Explored force structures and design options including evolutionary, revolutionary, and technology surprise advancements required for future capabilities to enable the Space Force After Next. Initiated roadmaps to address identified S&T gaps.

Results Organization

This report presents observations, findings, and recommendations derived from all three seasons of the workshops.  It is structured into four main sections:

• The Accelerating Importance of Space: Examining the growing and transformative role of space in global geostrategy.
• The Dual Mandate for the Space Force After Next: Defining and implementing strategies to ensure continued U.S. space preeminence.
• The Role of Commercial Space and the Industrial Base: Highlighting the critical contributions of commercial space and the industrial base to the dual mandate.
• U.S. Space S&T Preeminence: Addressing the importance of maintaining space science and technology leadership to uphold U.S. space dominance.

This structure provides a comprehensive overview of the foresight process and the strategic actions necessary to secure U.S. space leadership in an increasingly complex and contested domain.

The Accelerating Geostrategic Importance of Space

Four key observations were made regarding the growing and accelerating geostrategic importance of space:

• Space is a critical and growing area of common human endeavor.
• Space competition is accelerating.
• Space has growing importance to national power.
• U.S. space preeminence is challenged.

Space is Critical Area of Common Human Endeavor                          

Space is increasingly becoming a critical domain of human activity and a key source of national power. The rapid developments observed over the past decade highlight a profound transformation in the space landscape:

• Rising Launch Activity:  Global space launches surged from 66 per year in 2019 to 208 in 2019 to 2022 with the U.S. leading this increase.⁶
• Advancements in Launch Systems:  SpaceX revolutionized space access with over 300 Falcon 9 launches, demonstrating exceptional reliability with more than 15 reuses per stage and 165 consecutive successful launches.  The development of the fully-reusable, 100-ton lift capacity, Starship space-launch system is poised to transform space launch capability.⁷
• Space Tourism Milestones:  Companies like Virgin Galactic, Blue Origin and SpaceX successfully demonstrated space tourism flights, opening new commercial opportunities.^8,9,10
• Emerging Launch Providers:  China’s aggressive investment in reusable launch, and the rise of over 40 companies globally pursuing alternative launch methods indicate a rapidly diversifying launch industry.¹¹
• Satellite Constellations: Starlink’s expansion to over 5,000 of its 12,000 satellites and over 1.5 million subscribers has also provided wartime military communication for the Ukraine/Russia conflict. ¹²These are coupled with OneWeb’s with over 600 satellites, Amazon’s Kuiper project with over 3,000 satellites, the European Union’s $6B investment in a LEO internet system, and China’s developing constellations of 17,000 satellites and are shaping global communications and internet access. In addition, the number of commercial earth imaging systems has more than tripled.^13,14,15,16
• Lunar Exploration Achievements: Intuitive Machines lunar lander (first U.S. lander in 50 years), Japan’s and India’s successful lunar landers, China’s lunar rovers and payload at the lunar Lagrange point, the launch of the U.S. Artemis spacecraft, and the build out of the Chinese space station show signification strides in lunar exploration and space infrastructure; 15 other countries are also pursuing lunar missions.^{17,18,19,20,21}
• International Collaborations: United Arab Emirates’ lunar rover mission in partnership with Japan, and Saudi Arabia’s collaboration with the United Kingdom on space solar power system exemplify growing international cooperation in space.^22,23,24

Space Competition is Accelerating                                                                      

Competition in space is intensifying as rivals and potential adversaries challenge U.S. space dominance.²⁵ Adversaries are investing heavily to match and surpass U.S. capabilities, especially with the falling costs of launches and space system development. Advances in space science and technology, combined with its global diffusion, are driving the rise of diverse players in space, including nations, commercial entities, and non-state actors, creating a multipolar space environment where influence is shared. Even non-state actors can influence space capabilities through cyberattacks.

Key areas of competition include launch services, exploitation of LEO and GEO, lunar exploration, and the development of Cislunar space. Exploration and exploitation drive space operations through GEO to the moon and beyond. While civil and commercial activities will initially dominate operations beyond GEO (xGEO), the military operations in this region will increase, particularly in command/control/ communications, information superiority, and space-based offensive and defensive operations. This shift will be driven by the increasing importance of space for national power, particularly military strength, and the competition to exploit lunar and other space resources.

Space is Important to National Power

Commercial

By 2045 and beyond, the commercial space sector is expected to grow significantly, potentially accounting for up to 10% of global gross domestic product (GDP) by 2060. The 2022 GDP for the space sector sits at over $131 billion or 0.5%.  The space economy grew at a rate of 2.3% compared to an overall U.S. GDP growth of 1.9%.²⁶ Nations that best develop and exploit their commercial space industries will gain a strategic advantage in space dominance.  Four primary axes of accelerated commercial space growth include:

1. LEO and GEO exploitation for communications, internet services, and Earth and space observation, driven by expanded satellite constellations.²⁷
2. Commercial capabilities for civil and military needs, such as weather monitoring, earth observations, communications, and lunar and beyond exploration.
3. Space manufacturing and resource extraction, initially focused on supporting lunar exploration and, in the long term, to extract and manufacture products for terrestrial markets and a growing space infrastructure and industrial base. In-space logistics is projected to become the primary mover of these resources in the future.^28,29
4. Space tourism and human habitation, including suborbital flights, commercial space stations, and long-term human habitation supported by advancements in cost-effective, heavy lift launch systems.³⁰

Civil

The civil sector will continue to evolve along three paths:

1. Earth Observation for terrestrial weather forecasting, resource management, and environmental monitoring. 
2. Space Exploration, including cutting-edge astronomical research using systems like the James Webb Space Telescope.
3. Lunar and Deep-Space Exploration, motivated by national prestige and the potential for lunar resource exploitation and exploration beyond the Moon, including developing of logistics to support sustained human presence in space, on the Moon and beyond.

Military

The military domain will experience increased competition as more nations develop space capabilities.  The growing reliance on space for military operations, coupled with the use of commercial assets for defense purposes, will drive the expansion of military space systems for all nations. Space systems provide global reach for both terrestrial and space domains in a faster, highly interconnected, and shrinking world. These systems will be essential for protecting U.S. military, civil, and commercial space capabilities and countering or denying adversaries’ space capabilities during conflicts.

U.S. Space Preeminence is Challenged                                      

While the U.S. currently leads in key areas like returning to the moon, LEO communication and internet constellations, reusable launch systems, and Earth observation,this dominance faces growing challenges. Key factors supporting U.S. leadership include:

• Technological Advantages: Historical edge in space technology and innovation.
• Competitive Environment: A robust environment that fosters innovation and risk-taking.
• Government Strategy: Strategic use of commercial space capabilities alongside purpose-built government systems.

Maintaining this leadership requires a cohesive national vision, increased coordination and cooperation across all-of government, allies, industry, and academia, and a focus on establishing space norms of behavior and international law. The U.S. must work to shape these norms in a way that supports its political and economic values. This requires the U.S. to be forward looking, maintain existing relationships, and identify emerging space-faring nations to foster cooperation and future alliances.

Recommendations and Actions

The U.S. must remain vigilant in maintaining its leadership in space by adapting to the rapidly evolving competitive landscape.  Through the following actions, the U.S. can continue to secure its space preeminence and shape the future of this critical domain:

• Institutionalize Strategic Foresight: The USSF must continue leveraging strategic foresight to track the rapid evolution of space and its implications to guide national and military strategies.  This process is essential for maintaining U.S. space preeminence. Specifically, the USSF should:
  • Continue a robust Space Futures strategic foresight process and apply its insights to strategy, investments, and global engagement.
  • Integrate the Space Futures strategic foresight process with:
    • The Space Wargaming Center and Space Warfare Analysis Center (SWAC) modeling, simulations, and analysis capabilities,
    • The SWAC’s architecture development, and
    • The Office of the Deputy Chief of Space Operations for Strategy, Plans, Programs, Requirements and Analysis (S5/8) development of mid- to long-term requirement and future operational concepts.
  • Codify the Space Futures strategic foresight process in a HQ USSF Operating Instruction that establishes its function and relationship to other USSF processes and organizations.
• Improve National Strategy and Coordination: USSF should lead efforts to create a cohesive national vision and strategy for space that fosters cooperation among all-of government, allies, industry, and academia. This vision and strategy must preserve the drive and innovation and the diversity in approaches and risk-taking that is required for U.S. preeminence. The U.S. government should pursue increased, targeted cooperation, coordination, and partnerships with industry and academia, and ensure adequate resources are available for technology development.
• Shape International Space Norms and Laws: The U.S. and its allies must lead in establishing frameworks, global norms, and laws for space to protect their interests and values. The USSF should lead the all-of government approach and cultivate long-term cooperation between current allies and emerging neutral space partners.
• Maintain U.S. Competitiveness: The U.S. must develop a strategy to promote its space services and systems globally while balancing the need to protect critical technologies and maintain global competitiveness.

The Dual Mandate for the Space Force After Next

We’re building a Space Force not just for today, but for 100 years from now. “

– General John Raymond, First Chief of Space Operations³¹

“Space has already become a new domain of modern military struggle; it is a critical factor for deciding military transformation; and it has an extremely important influence on the evolution of future form-states, modes, and rules of war.”

– China’s Science of Military Strategy, 2020³²

The following key observations were made during the definition and examination of the dual mandate for the Space Force After Next of 2045, which are central to continued U.S. space preeminence:

• The future of military space will be driven by the speed and extent of unfolding trends.
• The USSF must embrace the evolving dual mandate to address these trends and maintain U.S. space preeminence.
• USSF missions and operations must evolve in scope, technology, and capability to meet the dual mandate. 
• A continuous process is required to define military space responsibilities and adapt to changing conditions.
• There is a growing mismatch between the critical role of space to support terrestrial military operations and defend U.S. space interests with the resources allocated.

Future Trends in Military Space

The future of military space will be shaped by key trends that will influence how the USSF supports joint military operations:

• Growing Cross-Domain Space Capabilities:  The trend is for military space to continue to grow as a global high-ground for joint and cross-domain capabilities and operations supporting the joint needs for Expanded Maneuver and its sub-elements of Contested Logistics, Joint Fires, All Domain C2 and Information Advantage.⁵As adversaries increasingly threaten terrestrial capabilities, the role of space in supporting these operations will grow.
• Contested Space Domain: The growing importance of space for national civil, commercial, and military purposes is making it an increasingly contested domain. This necessitates advancements in low-latency space domain awareness (SDA) and agile offensive and defensive operations. To protect U.S. and allied space assets, the U.S. must develop systems to detect, track, and respond to threats from a growing array of space systems.
• Expanding LEO to GEO hybrid architecture: The region from LEO to GEO will continue to grow as a hub for national and global communications, internet, and intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capabilities. This will involve a hybrid architecture of diversified, distributed, and proliferated systems across various orbits and sizes. The integration of military, commercial, and mixed systems will enable flexible responses to military needs.
• Improved Space Access, Mobility and Logistics: Advances in space access, mobility, and logistics will result from decreased launch costs, increased availability, and enhanced in-space capabilities. This will include the ability to refuel, resupply, repair, assemble, and upgrade space systems, supporting more effective operations.
• Military Activities xGEO: Space-faring nations are expanding military operations xGEO to enhance mission assurance for command and control and information advantage, enable flexible and agile space operations, and protect critical infrastructure. This expansion increases the likelihood of provocative actions by great powers, non-state actors, or emerging space-faring nations. It may also lead to the extension of strategic nuclear capabilities into space, potentially violating the Outer Space Treaty.
• Multinational Lunar and Cislunar Development: Multiple countries and alliances are developing permanent lunar facilities and infrastructure at Lagrange points. This includes establishing a transport and supply system for lunar bases and expanding industrial activities in near-lunar space. The development of these facilities will support the growing economic exploitation and presence on the Moon.
• Economic Exploitation and Industrialization: There is growing interest in exploiting lunar and asteroid resources and expanding industrial and manufacturing activities in space. This includes in-space servicing, assembly, and maintenance and resource extraction for building large platforms for communications, computation, power, and large aperture imaging. Extensive logistics and power networks will be required. Protecting this critical infrastructure will be a priority during conflicts.
• Human Habitation and Exploration: Initial civil exploration will lead to commercial exploitation and human habitation of space and other planets. This will require protecting U.S. national and economic interests and ensuring a sustainable human presence.

Addressing Challenges Though a Dual Mandate

The Space Force must prepare for a future where its responsibilities extend far beyond current missions.  The rapid evolution of space capabilities is already shaping the Space Force After Next. To maintain space superiority the USSF will need develop missions, capabilities, and force structure to execute operations in support of a dual mandate.  The dual mandates include:

1. Support Terrestrial Military Operations:  Strengthen space capabilities that support and enhance joint operations on Earth by ensuring global reach, rapid response, and the ability to counter or neutralize an adversary’s space capabilities.
2. Lead in Space-Centric Operations:  Expand capabilities to conduct military operations in space, extending from LEO through Cislunar and beyond. This includes defending the growing number of U.S. interests in space and countering evolving adversary threats.

Ensuring the dual mandate is central to USSF meeting its role under joint doctrine to provide cross-domain support to Expanded Maneuver through enabling Contested Logistics, Joint Fires, All Domain C2, and Information Advantage.The dual mandate does not change the core competencies of the USSF but will radically transform:

• The scope and complexity of the USSF missions, capabilities, and force structure, and
• The spatial area of responsibility over which these core competencies must be executed.

These two mandates are interconnected and the USSF must balance supporting terrestrial operations while simultaneously addressing unique space-related challenges.  The focus cannot remain on the familiar Earth-centric missions; expanding space-specific threats must also be prioritized.

Evolving USSF Missions and Operations

Meeting the dual mandate requires significant evolution in USSF force structure and capabilities.

• Support Terrestrial Joint Military Operations: Enhance capabilities to support military operations on Earth by leveraging space for global reach and continuous coverage. This includes:
  • Contested Logistics: Develop systems for rapid logistical support globally, with launch and in-situ maneuvering capabilities to deliver support within approximately 60 minutes.
  • Joint Fires: Utilize space-based systems to support global joint fires, including both offensive and defensive operations.
  • All-Domain C2: Provide secure, global communication and Pointing, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) for command, control, and communications (C3), and ensure decision superiority.
  • Information Advantage: Deploy a space sensor network to provide continuous intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) and information advantage, augmenting or replacing terrestrial sensing and communication capabilities that may be degraded or denied.
• Support Space-Domain Operations through Cislunar and Near the Moon:
  • Robust Launch Capability: Ensure rapid reconstitution, augmentation, and logistics capabilities with sufficient speed and capability.
  • C3 in Space: Support in-space operations to protect U.S. commercial and civil space resources and military operations in increasingly crowded space environments.
  • Secured PNT: Provide reliable navigation and timing services for military operations and national presence.
  • Space Domain Awareness (SDA): Develop systems for detecting, tracking, and characterizing threats to support both defensive and offensive operations.
  • Space Control: Establish space control capabilities at strategic locations (LEO, GEO, xGEO), Lagrange Points, Cislunar, and beyond Cislunar, with rapid maneuverability and force concentration as needed.
  • Space Logistics: Build distributed, agile, and survivable logistics capabilities for timely refueling rearming, resupply, assembly, repair, and manufacturing in space.
  • Interoperability: Ensure systems can flexibly cooperate with allies, partners, and diverse international systems for integrated space operations.
  • Resiliency: Design systems to withstand various threats, including electromagnetic pulse and solar storms, with capabilities for rapid reconstitution.
  • Debris Mitigation and In-Situ Construction:  Develop military-specific capabilities for managing space debris and constructing and repairing military assets in space.
• Policing: To the extent that is not provided by other national or international capabilities.
• Search, Rescue, and Medevac: To support increased civil, commercial, and military human presence in space.

Defining Military Space Responsibilities

Sustaining U.S. space preeminence is a share responsibility across the entire government, in collaboration with U.S. allies, the commercial sectors, and academia. It requires an ongoing process to adapt roles and responsibilities as space challenges evolve. While the USSF is primarily responsible with the DoD to “organize, train, and equip” space capabilities for the Combatant Commands, this doesn’t exclude shared duties across the DoD and other government agencies as space needs grow.

A continual assessment is needed to determine whether responsibilities should be consolidated within the USSF or distributed among various agencies, including the military, regulatory, law enforcement, and intelligence sectors. Decisions should prioritize effectiveness, efficiency, and cost. Both mission acceptance and avoidance carry risks, and the USSF must avoid focusing solely on current missions, ensuring it adapts to emerging challenges.

Addressing the Resource Mismatch

No nation in the 21st century will be a great power unless they are a space power. The growing importance of space operations requires significantly increased resources for the USSF. This includes new authorities, expanded force structures, and larger budgets to meet the expanding demands of space missions both on Earth and xGEO. Failure to address these issues will endanger continued U.S. space preeminence.

Recommendations and Actions

• Institutionalize Space Futures Strategic Foresight: Establish a strategic foresight process within the USSF to explore future space trajectories and their implications for U.S. space power and missions.  This will guide the development of future capabilities and force structures.
• Embrace the Dual Mandate: Develop and integrate capabilities to support both terrestrial military actions and expanding space operations from LEO to the Moon and beyond. Ensure that U.S. interests are protected and that strategic investments align with the dual mandate.
• Develop Future Operating Concepts: Create Future Operating Concepts for 2045 based on current strategic foresight. These concepts should guide the development of a flexible and adaptable force structure capable of addressing both current and emerging challenges.
• Drive Strategic Investments: Use Future Operating Concepts to direct investments and strategic decisions between current and future force structures and capabilities. This includes prioritizing investments that align with long-term strategic goals.
• Review Authorities and Budgets: Continuously assess and expand the authorities, force structure, and budget for the USSF to respond effectively to the evolving role of space. Determine the optimal balance between consolidated and distributed responsibilities.
• Build Alliances: Lead efforts to strengthen and develop military relationships and alliances with both current and emerging space powers. Collaborate with international partners to enhance collective space security and operational capabilities.

The Role of Commercial Space and the Industrial Base                            

The future of commercial space and its relevance to DoD/USSF was examined across five areas:

• Data: This includes space-based communication and internet systems.
• Viewing: This pertains to the viewing of, in and from space.
• Logistics: This includes refueling, resupply, repair, assembly, and upgrades.
• Industrial Foundations: This pertains to power generation, manufacturing, and resource extraction.
• Human Presence: This encompasses exploration, tourism, and support for logistics and industrial foundations. 

More detailed findings for each of these areas, projected through 2032 and extending to 2045 and beyond, are included in Appendix B.  

The role of commercial space is central to shaping future military and national security operations. As commercial space capabilities advance, understanding their implications for the DoD and the USSF is vital for maintaining strategic space dominance. The following observations were made in the essential role of commercial space and the U.S. space industrial base in meeting the dual mandate:

• Global commercial space expansion will accelerate, with significant growth expected after 2032.              
• Intensifying global commercial space competition will challenge U.S. space dominance.
• The DoD/USSF needs a balanced strategy to maintain U.S. commercial space leadership supporting while supporting evolving military demands.                                  
• Expanding domestic and global commercial space sectors will influence USSF capabilities and responsibilities.

Global Commercial Space Expansion

Commercial space will continue to expand globally, with rapid growth expected post-2032.  Commercial space is experiencing significant growth both in the U.S. and worldwide, driven primarily by advancements in communication and internet systems. By 2032, the global constellation of Very Low Earth Orbit and LEO communication satellites is projected to exceed 10,000, alongside over 1,000 viewing satellites. This growth will be supported by a rise in flexible, low-cost access to space, facilitated by companies like SpaceX and Blue Origin, as well as international players such as China and the European Union. While logistics, manufacturing, and human presence in space will grow more slowly, foundational developments will occur, especially in lunar exploration and niche manufacturing in LEO. The period leading up to 2032 will set the stage for a significant inflection point, enabling larger structures for logistics and resource manufacturing in Cislunar space.

Global Commercial Space Competition

Global competition in commercial space will intensify, challenging U.S. preeminence.  The number and economic significance of commercial and quasi-commercial space providers will rise steadily through 2032 and beyond.  Key drivers include reduced launch costs, widespread access to enabling technologies, and recognition of commercial capabilities as critical national infrastructure. Countries such as the European Union, China, and India will increasingly invest in their commercial space sectors, recognizing their importance for national power. Those with diverse commercial space industries will gain advantages in military space capabilities, as commercial entities can offer cost-effective solutions and broad technology applications for military needs.

Balanced USSF Commercial Space Strategy

The DoD/USSF needs a balanced strategy to maintain U.S. commercial space leadership while meeting evolving military needs. The DoD/USSF must promote commercial space through a balanced approach that leverages U.S. strengths in innovation and flexibility while fostering partnerships with the robust commercial sector. There is also a balance between the government as a purchaser of a commercial product or service and government as a development partner. This involves understanding the business constraints of emerging space companies and the needs of the DoD/USSF. Joint analytic frameworks should clarify the benefits of U.S. government collaboration with commercial providers, prioritizations, resources allocations, and contracting constraints, ensuring that government investments align with both commercial capabilities and military requirements. 

Expanding Commercial Space Sectors Influence USSF Capabilities  

The growth of domestic and global commercial space will influence USSF capabilities and responsibilities.  The expansion of commercial space will affect USSF in three main ways:

• Meeting Military Needs: Commercial systems will increasingly fulfill DoD/USSF requirements, especially in areas like communications and ISR, driven by the rapid advancement of technology and an expanding range of providers. Logistics capabilities will enable refuel and resupply to support dynamic space operations across military functions, and in the longer-term the ability for assembly and repair. 
• Protection of Commercial Capabilities: The USSF will bear greater responsibility for safeguarding commercial space assets from adversarial threats, as these assets become integral to national infrastructure and military operations. Contingency plans will be necessary for scenarios where commercial capabilities are compromised.
• Complex Interconnected Ecosystem: As the commercial space landscape grows, the USSF must navigate a complex network of commercial entities and markets. This includes restricting adversaries’ access to commercial capabilities that could impact military operations, as well as managing third-party commercial entities within this interconnected ecosystem.

Recommendations and Actions

• Increase Exploitation of Commercial Capabilities: DoD/USSF should enhance its engagement with U.S. space industry capabilities, ensuring a consistent and structured approach that is not bureaucratically burdensome. This includes promoting the development and integration of commercial systems that meet military needs effectively.
• Improve Interactions with the Space Industry: Foster a more efficient and beneficial relationship with the U.S. space industry, particularly the “New Space” sector. This requires:
  • A deep understanding of military space needs, priorities, and their drivers.
  • Insight into how current and planned commercial systems meet these needs.
  • Knowledge of resource allocation and funding flexibility within DoD/USSF, and constraints on commercial business models.
  • An understanding of the risks and cost-effectiveness associated with new commercial approaches.
• Develop Improved Analytical Tools: Create advanced analytical tools to assess the trade-offs between waiting for commercial space capabilities to mature and collaborating with industry to develop them. These tools should account for the evolving needs and how they vary across different functional or operational areas. SWAC has taken the lead in this more analytical basis, but more effort and work are required.
• Formulate an All-of-Government Strategy: Develop a comprehensive strategy that involves all relevant government agencies and international allies to support and partner with the U.S. space industrial base. This strategy should address current capabilities, stimulate future development, and ensure alignment with U.S. military needs.
• Adapt to Growing Global Competition: Recognize the impact of global commercial space expansion on USSF capabilities and responsibilities. This includes addressing the challenges posed by increased competition and ensuring effective responses to threats from potential adversaries.

U.S. Space S&T Preeminence

The U.S. space preeminence is deeply rooted in its space science and technology capabilities. As the global space landscape evolves, maintaining this preeminence depends on continuous advancements in space S&T. This section explores the crucial role of space S&T in sustaining U.S. space dominance and outlines key areas where advances and breakthroughs are essential. While the first two seasons of the Space Futures Workshops developed foundation of the S&T observations, the season three workshop in December 2023 went the next step in identifying key S&T dependencies of the capabilities and systems that will compose the force structure developed in earlier workshops. While the goal of developing technology road maps was not completed at this workshop, key technologies were identified. This outcome will be used to shape the USSF mid-to long-term focus and investment strategies. Six key observations were derived on S&T:

• Space S&T will remain foundational to national space preeminence.
• Advancing space S&T will transform operational military capabilities.
• Strategic focus and bold investments in S&T are required.
• Assuring continued U.S. Space S&T preeminence across these areas requires strategic focus and bold investments in evolutionary, revolutionary, and surprise S&T. 
• Current USSF space investments are unbalanced.
• Current USSF S&T processes are fragmented.  
• Critical S&T areas may rapidly advance with high impact.

Space S&T as the Foundation of Preeminence

Advances in space S&T have driven the rapid expansion of commercial, civil, and military activities in space. S&T will remain foundational to the maintenance and growth of the space contribution to national power. The U.S. holds a broad advantage in these areas, but other nations are aggressively catching up. Increased national focus and investment are required to maintain U.S. space preeminence and strategic advantages both on Earth and in space.

Transformative Impact of Space S&T Advances

Ongoing and accelerating advancements in Space S&T will significantly reshape the operational military capabilities of the U.S., its allies, and its adversaries. These advancements will shape Command, Control, and Communications (C3), Multi-Domain Sensing, and Space Control, encompassing both defensive and offensive operations. S&T development and transition of these technologies are critical for maintaining future military advantages and avoiding vulnerabilities.

Command, Control, and Communication

Future C3 capabilities will depend on highly interconnected hardware and software systems that link space and terrestrial nodes, ensuring seamless, responsive military operations. These systems will enhance data processing, decision-making, and communication capabilities.

• Agile, Adaptive, and Distributed Systems: Advanced computation and storage systems distributed across civil, commercial, and military space nodes will enable faster and more accurate data processing, fusion, and decision-quality information generation. This will enhance operational awareness and support rapid decision-making in real-time scenarios.

• Protected, High-Bandwidth Communication: High-bandwidth data transmission will ensure protected, continuous, and secure flow of information, decisions, and commands. These communication channels will be critical for operating within an adversary’s decision-action loop, giving U.S. forces a significant advantage in executing timely and precise military actions.

• Resilience Through On-Demand Space Access: Future C3 systems will be capable of augmenting or reconstituting critical nodes through on-demand space access. On-orbit logistics, such as refueling, resupply, repair, and updates, will enable operational longevity and maintain communication networks even in contested environments.

The network layer will play a pivotal role by dynamically controlling the space elements within the Combined Joint All-Domain Command and Control (CJADC2) system. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) algorithms will provide near-instantaneous situational awareness, autonomously detecting and responding to threats. This will allow rapid reconfiguration of the network based on evolving military needs or adversary actions.

The application layer will facilitate the distributed, agile execution of processes like Domain Awareness, Battle Management Command and Control (BMC2), and Decision Superiority (DS). With the aid of AI and ML, these systems will rapidly process and fuse data, generating actionable intelligence. This intelligence will allow U.S. forces to achieve DS by outpacing adversaries in recognizing and exploiting emerging threats.

Multi-Domain Sensing

Future sensing capabilities will be enhanced by both space-based and terrestrial sensors that provide multi-domain sensing will be a cornerstone of future military operations, relying on a complex network of space-based and terrestrial sensors to monitor the battlespace continuously. These sensors will offer greater sensitivity, coverage, and adaptability, enabling real-time situational awareness.

• Continuous Battlespace Observation: Advanced sensor systems will provide continuous monitoring of the operational environment. These sensors will deliver enhanced sensitivity and coverage by integrating data from multiple distributed sensors, allowing for a clearer, more comprehensive picture of the battlefield.

• Dynamic and Adaptive Sensing: Multi-domain sensing will leverage real-time, adaptive optimization of sensor performance. This capability will enable U.S. forces to detect and track adversaries’ locations, capabilities, and intent with high accuracy. It will also allow for rapid reconfiguration of sensor systems to respond to changing threats, enhancing decision-making cycles within the adversary’s decision-action loop.

• Distributed, Adaptive Sensor Networks: Future sensor networks will employ a range of sensors across diverse space vehicles, constellations, and orbits. These networks will include assets from military, allied, and commercial sectors, working together to increase sensor sensitivity, coverage, and revisit rates. This distributed and proliferated network will be capable of dynamically adjusting its performance and position to meet the warfighter’s needs.

The mission assurance of these sensing systems will be critical. They will need to remain operational even in the face of adversary actions, leveraging resilience and self-healing capabilities to withstand damage. Augmentation and reconstitution capabilities will allow for rapid restoration of sensor networks through space access, on-orbit refueling, resupply, repair, or upgrades.

Space Control

Space control will include both offensive and defensive operations within space and between terrestrial and space domains. These operations will be supported by platforms that enable tracking, maneuvering, and engagement of adversary systems with high precision. The key elements of future space control will include:

• Data Fusion and Exploitation: Systems will rely on data fusion and exploitation to rapidly track and assess multiple maneuvering adversary targets in real-time, utilizing multiple local and global data. This will allow for quick and accurate decision-making during fast-paced, dynamic engagements.

• Enhanced Maneuverability: Offensive and defensive systems will be capable of high-speed maneuvering and extended range, supported by improved in-space propulsion and refueling capabilities. This enhanced mobility will allow U.S. forces to respond swiftly to emerging threats in a highly dynamic space environment.

• Dynamic, Cooperative Operations: Space control platforms will communicate real-time and interact flexibly with one another to support large-scale, many-on-many operations. This will enable coordinated, dynamic responses to threats, greatly enhancing operational effectiveness in complex battle environments.

Future systems will be heterogeneous—comprising both autonomous and human-in-the-loop platforms. These systems will adapt rapidly to adversarial threats, operating within the broader CJADC2 framework for optimal command and control.

For mission assurance, U.S. and Allied capabilities will remain resilient against adversarial actions through coordinated offensive and defensive systems. These systems will be designed to dynamically adjust and self-heal from attacks, ensuring sustained operational effectiveness in space.

Strategic Focus and Bold Investments

Maintaining U.S. space S&T preeminence in a time of rapid technology progress demands strategic focus and bold investments across evolutionary, revolutionary, and surprise S&T developments.  This requires attention not only to current systems but also to future capabilities through diverse and adaptive space architectures.

Maintaining U.S. space S&T leadership requires a balanced approach, investing across:

• Evolutionary S&T: Optimizing current systems and near-future capabilities.
• Revolutionary S&T: Developing new, adaptive architectures and capabilities that can adjust autonomously in a dynamic space environment.
• S&T Surprise: Preparing for unexpected advances from both U.S. allies and adversaries, creating uncertainty in adversary planning.

This strategic focus must be applied across current and future Space Force programs, extending over multiple fiscal year development plans into the 2040s. This can be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix defining the focus and investment across these three areas of S&T and the present Space Force, the next Space Force currently in planning and acquisition and the Space Force after next of 2045 and beyond.

Unbalanced Investments

The USSF’s planning, programing, budgeting, and execution process and current investment strategy prioritizes short-term evolutionary gains, limiting progress in revolutionary and disruptive technologies.  A deliberate shift toward including significant long-term S&T investment is needed to address threats that do not yet exist and to sustain U.S. space preeminence.

Fragmented S&T Process                         

The USSF’s processes for identifying and addressing S&T needs are disjointed and overly tactical and weakly coupled to strategic needs. To maintain leadership, the USSF must unite the space S&T community—spanning government, industry, and academia—under a cohesive and strategic approach that balances innovation with practical application.

High Impact Potential

Within the broad portfolio of science and technology (S&T), there are certain areas with a high likelihood of unexpected breakthroughs that could significantly shape the future of U.S. military space capabilities—or those of adversaries. Investments in these areas are crucial for maintaining strategic advantages in space operations. Here are key areas with potential for surprise:

• Cognitive Science and AI/ML: Advances in cognitive science and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning are transforming how data is processed, information is generated, and decisions are made.  Applying these insights to AI/ML systems can create more adaptive and flexible systems capable of operating in complex environments.
  • Military Impact: Enhanced AI/ML systems can rapidly fuse, analyze, and reduce vast amounts of data, speeding up decision-making processes and identifying critical connections.  These systems would enable U.S. forces to execute commands and operations more quickly within the adversary’s decision-action loop. This offers a decisive advantage in areas like autonomous operations, automated systems, and rapid kill chain execution, improving the efficiency and effectiveness of military engagements.
• AI/ML and Human-Machine Interface Integration: Integrating cognitive science, AI/ML, and human-machine interfaces will allow for direct interaction and collaboration between humans and AI-driven systems. This integration improves the speed at which humans can interpret data and act on insights generated by AI systems.
  • Military Impact: This capability enhances the speed and accuracy of military decision-making at all levels—from broad strategic maneuvers to small-unit tactical engagements. In combat scenarios, it allows for more adaptive and integrated strike forces, where human operators can seamlessly work with AI systems to analyze information and execute decisions faster than adversaries, creating a strategic advantage across the battlefield.
• Integrated Development: AI, Materials, and Manufacturing: The integration of AI/ML, human-machine interfaces, and fundamental research in materials, chemistry, biology, and robotics offers immense potential. This convergence enables faster exploration, discovery, and application of new knowledge in areas critical for space operations.
  • Military Impact: Nations that excel in this end-to-end capability—from research to deployment—will enjoy a military advantage in developing and fielding new systems more quickly. These systems will offer superior capabilities, tailored to meet emerging needs. Additionally, the ability to utilize in-situ resources for space logistics, such as refueling and repairs, will provide operational flexibility and sustainability in space missions.
• Biomimetic Systems and Human Enhancement: Advances in biology, including bio-inspired systems, human enhancement, and life extension technologies, are creating opportunities for greater adaptability and resilience in both human and machine systems.
  • Military Impact: Bio-inspired systems can offer self-healing and adaptable computation capabilities, while human enhancement technologies can improve physical and cognitive performance in extreme environments. These advances could significantly improve decision-making and operational effectiveness in space, making human forces more adaptable and survivable in long-duration or high-risk space missions.
• Quantum Technologies: Quantum technologies, including quantum sensing, quantum communications/encryption, and quantum computing, offer transformative potential for military space capabilities.
  • Quantum Sensing: Quantum sensors could provide unprecedented sensitivity in detecting gravitational fields and electromagnetic signals, vastly improving tracking, targeting, and situational awareness in fast-moving and complex operational areas.
  • Quantum Communications and Encryption: Quantum communication offers ultra-secure, high-bandwidth data transmission using Quantum Key Distribution and quantum entanglement for global communication and timing.
  • Quantum Computing: Quantum computing has the potential to dramatically accelerate data processing, enabling faster analysis of massive datasets.
  • Military Impact: Quantum sensing would enhance detection and targeting capabilities, allowing for more precise engagement of adversary assets.  It would also improve the effectiveness of U.S. and allied forces in crowded and contested environments, ensuring superior control over the operational area. Quantum communications and encryption would ensure secure global communications and precise PNT systems, providing orders-of-magnitude improvements in data transmission and security.  These advances would be critical in contested environments where maintaining communication integrity is essential. Quantum computing would allow for faster and more accurate analysis of terrestrial and space-based observations, providing critical insights that drive superior decision-making in military operations.  The ability to process vast amounts of data rapidly would offer a strategic edge in intelligence gathering and operational planning.
• New Launch Paradigms and Space Logistics: Technologies driven by AI/ML, autonomous systems, human-machine interfaces, and robotics are revolutionizing space logistics, including refueling, resupply, and repair. These innovations will enable the construction of larger structures in space, including beyond the International Space Station, and support resource extraction from the Moon and asteroids.
  • Military Impact: New launch paradigms will facilitate the rapid assembly of military structures of various sizes in space, allowing for more extensive and versatile space operations. This infrastructure could serve both military and commercial purposes, with the DoD responsible for its protection. U.S. space S&T investments must anticipate and exploit these advancements to ensure dominance in space operations from the present through 2045 and beyond.

Investing in these high-potential S&T areas will position the U.S. to capitalize on technological breakthroughs that could fundamentally alter military space operations. By anticipating and preparing for these advances, the U.S. can maintain a strategic edge, leveraging surprise technologies to outpace adversaries and ensure dominance across the full spectrum of space capabilities.

Strategic S&T Investments and Strategies

To ensure continued U.S. space dominance, strategic investment in S&T is critical. Throughout the SFW process there has been a goal to ultimately inform S&T priorities and investment strategies that align with maintaining U.S. space preeminence and allow the USSF to field the Space Force After Next and be prepared to fight both tonight’s and the future’s fight.  

S&T needs and investment priorities fall under the responsibility of the newly established Space Futures Command which is currently establishing their processes to develop priorities. The season 3 workshop determined key S&T areas where strategic investments in revolutionary technologies could align S&T development with long-term military and commercial space needs. Successful transition of these technology investment areas will ensure a competitive advantage. These include (not in final priority order):

• Autonomous and AI/ML Systems:

AI-driven autonomous systems will be crucial for future space operations, providing decision-making capabilities and managing distributed assets without human intervention. These systems will ensure superiority in space domain awareness (SDA), space logistics, and battle management.  Technology opportunities include autonomous decision-making systems, robotic systems for in-space manufacturing and repair, AI-driven SDA systems, and AI/ML-enhanced logistics and mobility.

• Advanced Propulsion and Space Logistics:

Investments in electric, nuclear, and advanced propulsion systems will enable U.S. space assets to maneuver quickly and sustain operations far beyond Earth. Space logistics systems, including on-orbit refueling and repair, will become essential for sustaining space-based operations.

• Quantum Communication and Secure Systems:

Quantum technology holds the potential to provide ultra-secure communication networks and faster data processing. Strategic investments in quantum computing, encryption, and communications will ensure that the U.S. maintains secure, high-bandwidth command and control capabilities.

• Space Domain Awareness:

With the increasing militarization of space and the proliferation of space assets, maintaining awareness of the space domain is essential for national security. Investments in SDA technologies for distributed and adaptive sensor networks, technologies for tracking and characterizing space objects, and resilient communications and processing systems for SDA will ensure the ability to monitor and respond to threats.

• Space Manufacturing and Resource Extraction:

The future of space operations will depend on the ability to manufacture and extract resources in space. These technologies will enable long-term human presence in space. Strategic investments in additive manufacturing and in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) will enable long-term human presence and large-scale space infrastructure.

• Cybersecurity for Space:

As space systems become more critical and interconnected, they will also become prime targets for cyber-attacks.  Ensuring the cybersecurity of space assets will be vital to protect military, civil, and commercial operations. Valuable technology advancements will be in cyber-hardened satellite systems, secure communications, resilient network architectures, and AI-driven cybersecurity defenses.

• Human Space Habitats and Life Support

As human presence in space expands, there will be a growing need for sustainable habitats and life support systems. Investment in technologies that support long-term human habitation in space will be essential. Technologies include radiation protection, closed-loop life support systems, space habitat construction, and health monitoring technologies for astronauts.

• Space Access and Launch

Expanding the accessibility of space through lower-cost launches will be critical for enabling a wide range of space activities, from commercial ventures to scientific research. Investing in cost-effective and flexible launch technologies will drive down barriers to entry.

• Energy Solutions for Space

Energy generation and management in space are key enablers for many other technologies. Investing in space-based solar power and other energy technologies can provide the power needed for long-term space missions and operations. Technology improvement areas include space-based solar power, advanced battery and energy storage systems, and wireless power transmission technologies.

• Space-Based Defense Capabilities:

As space becomes a contested domain, space-based defensive and offensive systems will be vital to maintaining military superiority. Investments in kinetic and directed-energy weapons will be necessary.

Recommendations and Actions

To maintain U.S. space S&T preeminence, the following actions are recommended:

• Improved USSF S&T Strategy: USSF must develop a comprehensive space S&T strategy, with processes to support its development, evolution, and execution.  This strategy should:
  • Balance evolutionary and revolutionary advancements to meet both current and future operational needs across the short, mid, and long term.
  • Anticipate and exploit unexpected advances and S&T surprises that may impact military space systems.
  • Foster coordination and collaboration across government, DoD, industry, allies, and academia, while maintaining the benefits of diverse, distributed research efforts.
  • Prioritize investments in revolutionary capabilities such as:
    • Cognitive Science and AI/ML
    • AI/ML and Human-Machine Interface Integration
    • Integrated Development: AI, Materials, and Manufacturing
    • Biomimetic Systems and Human Enhancement
    • Quantum Technologies
    • New Launch Paradigms and Space Logistics
• Enhanced Collaboration with Academia:
  • Establish a seminar program at USSF headquarters and field commands on key S&T advances and potential surprise.
  • Sponsor periodic conferences on space S&T and its military relevance.
  • Arrange regular visits by USSF personnel to major research institutions.
  • Develop a tailored outreach program for academia that addresses USSF’s current and future challenges.
• Increased S&T Training for Guardians:
  • Expand the Air Force Research Lab’s role in educating the USSF workforce on relevant S&T fundamentals.
  • Integrate military-relevant S&T topics into the formal education of USSF Guardians to ensure they are prepared for future technological challenges.

These actions will help secure U.S. leadership in space and ensure the resilience of its military space capabilities in the future.

Conclusions

This report consolidates key insights and recommended actions from the space strategic foresight process for both the U.S. and the U.S. Space Force (USSF). It highlights the rapidly evolving role of space as a critical element of U.S. and global power, the challenges this presents to U.S. space leadership, and the implications for the USSF’s emerging dual mandate.

We examined these challenges in the context of a future where space becomes a common domain for human activity, with a focus on the missions, capabilities, force structure, and operations the USSF will need by 2045 and beyond.  Additionally, the report explored the growing role of commercial space in providing essential capabilities for the USSF and the DoD, as well as the space science and technology investments required to maintain U.S. preeminence.

The findings here serve as critical guidance for the space community and leadership. They underscore the importance of continuously monitoring the evolving global space environment and shaping strategies to respond effectively, ensuring the U.S. retains its national and military space superiority.

In the 21st century, only a space power can claim to be a great power.

Appendix A

Space Futures Methodology and Structure

The USSF, in collaboration with a NATO expert, developed an advanced foresight methodology to address the uncertainty surrounding the future of space.  This process is designed to generate strategic insights for long-term U.S. advantage and is structured into three phases:

• Phase 1:  Explore and define possible futures for 2060, focusing on key actors and stakeholders, and assess the implications of these futures for U.S. national power and military capabilities.

• Phase 2:  Develop geostrategic scenarios for 2045 within these futures and explore potential operational environments.  Based on these, identify force design options for the USSF Space Force After Next, considering missions, capabilities, operations, and the supporting role of science and technology.  These scenarios are analyzed with the intelligence community to ensure alignment with current assessments of future threats.  An evaluation is performed of the role of commercial space and U.S. industry to enable and support the USSF and identify the foundational trends in space S&T.

• Phase 3:  Identify the S&T gaps within the proposed force structures and force designs, focusing on three categories:  long term evolutionary changes, revolutionary advancements, and potential for technology surprises.  Develop technology roadmaps to address those gaps, ensuring the 2045 Space Force After Next possesses the essential capabilities needed to maintain U.S. space dominance.

Between 2019 and 2023 the USSF conducted these phases through a series of 10 workshops.

Phase 1

SFW 1A – The Future of Space 2060 and its Implications for U.S. Strategy – This workshop defined eight archetypal futures for 2060 to guide long-term strategic planning on how to maintain U.S. space dominance.  These futures were developed by analyzing three key dimensions: economic significance of space, the level of human presence in space, and leadership across civil, commercial, and military space.  China was considered the principal rival in these futures.  The workshop offered insights into potential scenarios the U.S. and USSF may need to navigate or shape.

SFW1B – Space Power Competition 2060:  Challenges and Opportunities – This workshop analyzed the potential spacefaring nations and commercial entities of 2060, exploring their motivations, capabilities, and potential alliances.  It projected a future of widespread access to space capabilities and provided insights into the complex and interconnected global environment that the USSF will need to shape or contest.    

Phase 2

SFW 2A – Defining the Road to 2035-2045 USSF Capabilities Kickoff – This workshop focused on identifying the missions, capabilities, force structure, operations and S&T required for the Space Force After Next in 2045.  Participants explored operational, geopolitical, and technical challenges of the 2035-2045 period, including the role of government and the U.S. space industrial base in securing and shaping this future.  Discussions covered existing, expanded, and new USSF missions, as well as the S&T challenges defining them.

SFW 2B – Defining the Road to 2040 Military Space Force Capabilities – This workshop developed the blueprint for the Space Force After Next, analyzing six scenarios and eighteen 2045 Images of Future Operations (IOFOs) spanning the spectrum of competition, from shaping to contesting and fighting.  The U.S. response was explored withing the Observe, Orient, Decide, Act (OODA) loop.  The scenarios guided discussions on future USSF missions, capabilities, and operations, while a mission model canvas and value proposition analysis helped define future force structure and the S&T focus needed to enable it.

SFW 2C – Intelligence Community Perspective on Future Space Threats and USSF Implications – USSF intelligence experts used the scenarios and IOFOs from SFW2B to assess future threats and validate the realism of scenarios and conclusions regarding missions, capabilities, force structure, and S&T for the USSF in 2045.  This ensured that strategic planning aligned with current intelligence on potential adversaries’ intentions and capabilities projected into 2045.

SFW 2D – Space Futures Workshop with Industry – This workshop examined the state of commercial space capabilities in 2032 and 2045, focusing on two areas: (a) capabilities USSF may need to defend or deny to adversaries, and (b) the capabilities the commercial sector could provide to USSF.  Focus areas included data, sensing, manufacturing, logistics and human presence in space.     

SFW 2E (CRYSTALBALL) – S&T Advances Affecting 21st Century Space Military Operations – In collaboration with academia, this workshop explored underappreciated advances and potential technological breakthroughs and surprises that could impact U.S. or adversarial space operations by 2045.  Key research areas for USSF investments were identified, particularly in C3, multi-domain sensing, offensive and defensive space operations, and space access, mobility, and logistics (SAML).  

SFW 2F – Space Force Futures Generation Workshop – This event engaged USSF junior officers in discussions using the framework of SFW 2B, gaining insight from the future leaders of USSF.  The workshop focused on their perspectives on the force structure and capabilities needed for the USSF in 2045.

Phase 3

STS 23 – Space Technology Summit 2023 – This workshop identified top S&T priorities for the USSF, focusing on addressing operational needs and gaps in the context of competitive endurance with particular emphasis on the USSF Deltas.  The outcome was a prioritized list of key technical needs having the greatest aggregate impact to USSF strategic and operational near-, mid-, and long-term challenges.

SFW 3 – Bold Recommendations for the Future – This event explored future scenarios and USSF’s role within them.  The workshop aimed to identify the key technologies and sub-components required for USSF to meet future challenges.  Following the workshop, technology roadmaps will be examined/developed with USSF partners to ensure all identified technologies have clear paths to operational implementation.

Appendix B

The Critical Role of Commercial Space and the U.S. Space Industrial Base in Achieving the Dual Mandate

The growing globalization of civil, commercial, and military space activities presents significant challenges for maintaining U.S. space preeminence.  This appendix highlights the evolving role of commercial space systems in supporting U.S. space operations, with both opportunities and challenges for the DoD/USSF.  Commercial capabilities will enhance military operations but will also require new strategies to protect critical U.S. space infrastructure and counter adversary activities.  Projections of future commercial capabilities and their potential impact on USSF systems and operations are discussed for five key areas.

1. Data Capabilities

2032

By 2032, there will be a surge in LEO and mixed orbit systems providing global communications and internet services (e.g., Starlinks, OneWeb, Kuiper, and other international), driven by reductions in launch and production costs.  The LEO satellite population is expected to expand from about 5,000 today to 50,000-60,000, supporting a growing fraction of global data traffic. Commercial systems will continuously evolve, with increased interconnection between providers, and extend their reach GEO, particularly to support activities in Cislunar space.

2045

From 2032 to 2045, space-based communication capacity will keep expanding, propelled by the growth of the global Internet of Things (IoT), lower launch and system costs, continuously advancing technological capability, and increasing reliance on space as critical infrastructure.  New nations and commercial entities will develop and deploy their own systems.  By 2045, commercial systems will provide resilient, high-performance global communications with enhanced security and coverage throughout the Cislunar region.  Commercial capabilities above GEO will support space exploration and exploitation, in-space infrastructure, and C2 for military operations.

Significance for DoD/USSF

Commercial space communication systems offer both opportunities and challenges.  These systems will handle an increasing share of military communications, becoming part of our critical military, civil, and commercial infrastructure for the U.S. and our allies.  DoD/USSF must protect this U.S. infrastructure and be prepared to disrupt adversary systems.  The systems must meet military requirements for flexible, adaptive, secure, uninterrupted, and short latency communications.  Over time, commercial capabilities could reduce the need for military-specific systems for less time-sensitive operations, but dedicated military systems will still be required for critical and nuclear command and control.

2. Viewing

2032

Commercial viewing capabilities for Earth observations and SDA will see steady global growth.  By 2032 this expansion will be fueled by lower development and launch costs, and the increasing demand for commercial products that meet both civil and defense needs (e.g., weather monitoring, climate tracking, etc.).  This growth will be accelerated by global demand for more precise viewing data as technology advancements drive increased capability.  Government-commercial partnerships will be essential in meeting the dual-use requirements, with the government driving requirements for availability and mission assurance.

2045

By 2045, an increasing and diverse set of global providers will offer high-resolution, high coverage, Earth- and space-facing observation systems.  Technological advances will improve coverage, revisit rates, and data processing speeds, making commercial systems more viable for meeting both defense and civil needs. There will be a robust and growing global market for viewing data.  Small satellite constellations with larger apertures will complement larger systems, and mission assurance will improve as commercial constellations proliferate.

Significance to DoD/USSF

The military will continue to require continuous or near continuous observation (e.g., tactical and strategic missile warning, tracking and threat negation, aircraft tracking and engagement, fast moving ground systems, etc.).  While commercial systems will not meet all military needs by 2032, they will increasingly fulfill less time-critical observation requirements.  Decreasing launch and development costs will lead to new nations having access to space viewing systems with capabilities relevant to military operations.  DoD/USSF will need to account for adversary use of commercial SDA and earth observation systems, requiring capabilities to interdict hostile use and to protect U.S. systems from adversary interference.

3. Logistics

2032

By 2032, commercial space logistics—including resupply, refueling, repair, augmentation, and assembly—will experience growth.  The pace of this development will largely depend on how cost-effectively these logistics systems can support several key areas:  civil space exploration, particularly the establishment of a sustained human presence on the Moon; human activities in space driven by exploration, tourism, military operations, and commercial ventures; space manufacturing, power generation, and resource extraction; and dynamic military operations that require flexible logistics support.

These sectors will co-evolve with space logistics, each influencing the growth of the other.  The primary driver of logistics growth up to 2032 will be civil space exploration, focusing heavily on resupply and refueling missions.  The U.S. will utilize both Earth-based resources and lunar-derived sources for refueling, while other nations and private companies are expected to pursue similar capabilities.  For potential U.S. rivals, the degree to which logistics will serve dual civil, commercial, and military purposes remains uncertain.  Additional growth will be driven by the development of first-generation space stations designed for tourism, manufacturing, and space power, as well as logistical support for large satellites above low-Earth orbit, such as repositioning, refueling, and minor repairs.  Moreover, military space operations will require increased logistical support, particularly for refueling and resupply during critical mission phases.

2045

By 2045, space logistics infrastructure will expand rapidly, driven by significant advancements in technology and the growing demand for space manufacturing, tourism, and power systems.  The global development of lower cost, fully reusable heavy lift launch systems, along with AI/ML-driven robotics for in-space construction and maintenance, will provide the foundation for this growth.  Advances in in-space propulsion will further enhance the efficiency of movement and resupply throughout space.

This technological progress will create new commercial opportunities and global competition.  There will be an increase in logistically supported space manufacturing systems, which will produce goods for both terrestrial export and in-space applications.  Large space structures will be constructed for tourism and human habitation, while space power systems capable of generating gigawatts of energy will begin to emerge.  Resource extraction efforts will start on the Moon and eventually extend to asteroids.  In addition, commercial systems will play a crucial role in supporting dynamic military operations.  Space logistics will enable the development and maintenance of large space structures for civil, military, commercial, and dual use.  However, while these commercial logistical systems will enhance military capabilities, they may face limitations in supporting defense needs when U.S. space systems are under direct threat.

Significance to DoD/USSF

Commercial space logistics present both opportunities and challenges for DoD and the USSF, as well as our adversaries.  These logistics capabilities for resupply, refueling, and repair will greatly enhance the maneuverability, agility, range, and survivability of U.S. space assets during military operations.  Logistics will enable increased mission capability and assurance.  Additionally, the reduction in in launch costs and the increased lift mass will enable the deployment and sustainability of larger, more advanced military systems.

However, the global development of commercial or quasi-commercial logistics infrastructure presents a strategic challenge.  The USSF will need to protect U.S. space logistics systems, as these systems will become vital not only to the expanding space economy but also to national security.  At the same time, the USSF must be prepared to deny adversaries access to their own space logistics systems during periods of conflict to safeguard U.S. national interests.

4. Industrial Foundations – Manufacturing, Power, and Resource Extraction

2032

By 2032, space industrial foundations will develop along three main paths:  lunar manufacturing and resource extraction, Cislunar manufacturing and power production, and asteroid resource extraction.   Lunar efforts will initially focus on supporting exploration and establishing a lunar base, with potential for broader applications as technology advances.  Cislunar manufacturing and power production, initially occurring in GEO and below, will concentrate on producing terrestrial goods and energy, while asteroid mining will remain in its early stages.

Growth in these areas will depend on decreasing launch costs, expanding space logistics infrastructure, and the viability of business models for space-based manufacturing, resource extraction, and power generation.  By 2032, global reusable, low-cost launch systems, including Starship-like capabilities for 100+ ton lift, will accelerate industrial development.  Space logistics enabling assembly, repair, and resupply will support these efforts.

Lunar manufacturing and resource extraction will become critical for sustaining human presence on the Moon, while industrial activities in GEO and below will remain niche but growing.  Space-based power systems for beaming in space and to Earth, potentially reaching gigawatt-scale energy generation, could also be approaching commercial feasibility by this time.

2045

By 2045, space industrial foundations will experience rapid growth, driven by expanding space logistics, lower launch costs, and rising demand for space power, tourism, resource extraction, and manufacturing.  In-space manufacturing and resource harvesting of resources will reduce reliance on Earth-based resources, while space logistics will support large-scale industrial operations.  

Space tourism will expand significantly, as safety improvements and cost reductions make it accessible to more people.  Space-based power generation could reach several dozen gigawatts, and up to 100,000 tons of refined material could be processed annually.  Cyber risks will persist, but protective technologies will improve.

Significance to DoD/USSF

The expansion of industrial foundations presents both opportunities and challenges for DoD/USSF.  Industrial capabilities and space logistics will enable larger, more capable military systems across LEO, GEO, and Cislunar space.  However, the DoD and USSF must be prepared to defend or deny industrial foundations, particularly on the Moon, as they become critical for exploration and economic growth.  Manufacturing in Cislunar space and below will become vital to national economic power.  As space-based power generation grows, safeguarding or denying adversary access to this infrastructure will become a strategic priority.

5. Human Presence

2032

Human presence in space by 2032 will be driven by four key factors:  exploration, tourism and habitation, space manufacturing and resource extraction and power, and military operations. 

While initial growth will be spurred by government-supported exploration, commercial activities—particularly in tourism, manufacturing, and space infrastructure—will progressively dictate the scale of human presence.

For tourism and human habitation, the number of people in space will rise as transportation and habitat costs decrease.  This cost decrease will depend on several factors:

• The availability of reliable, low-cost, heavy lift for transporting humans to and from space, as well as for constructing large human habitats.
• The development of space logistics capabilities to assemble, maintain, and expand these habitats in a cost-effective way.
• Continued improvements in the Environmental Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS), such as better radiation protection, increased reliability, and microgravity countermeasures.
• The ability to use in-space or lunar resources for constructing and maintaining habitats, which will lower costs by reducing reliance on terrestrial supplies.

Human involvement in space manufacturing, power systems, and resource extraction will depend on how much direct human oversight is required versus what can be managed through automation, autonomy, or AI/ML driven systems.  The cost of maintaining human presence for these purposes will limit the extent to which humans are directly involved in these operations.

For military applications, lower launch costs and the ability to quickly assemble large structures will open opportunities for developing new space-based military systems.  The need for military human presence will depend on the degree to which military operations require direct human control versus automated or autonomous systems, particularly as communication delays increase with the distance from Earth.  

By 2032, total human presence in space will remain modest, supporting activities such as exploration, early commercial space stations, and tourism.  The number of people in space is unlikely to exceed a few dozen.

2045

By 2045, human presence will expand significantly, driven by the growth of industrial foundations, space logistics infrastructure, and decreasing launch and in-space transport costs.  The market for space tourism, power generation, resource extraction, and manufacturing will continue to grow, with tourism and human habitation the principal drivers for this increase in human presence.  The number of people living and working in space could grow into the hundreds by 2045, with large-scale human habitats and commercial operations becoming more common.

Significance to DoD/USSF

The increase in human presence in space presents both strategic opportunities and challenges for the DoD and USSF.  By 2032, competition for lunar exploration and resource extraction could require the DoD/USSF to protect human presence and the logistics infrastructure that supports it, while also safeguarding U.S. national interests in any disputes over lunar resource exploitation.  As human activities in space grow, there will be more opportunities to develop and operate larger and more capable military systems across a Cislunar area of responsibility.  This will be particularly important for space systems where direct human control is preferred over remote operation or automation, particularly as distances increase out to the Moon.  By 2045, protecting the increasing human and logistical infrastructure in space—including both commercial and government assets—will be a new challenge and key priority for securing U.S. national interests and maintaining economic and strategic dominance in space.

Appendix C

Footnotes

1. Sun Tzu, The Art of War, trans. Lionel Giles (New York: Dover Publications, 2022). ↩︎
2. The Yale Book of Quotations, Fred R. Shapiro, page 92, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2006 ↩︎
3. 60 years ago, the Space Age began – NASA ↩︎
4. Space Force announces new mission statement > United States Space Force > Article Display ↩︎
5. Gould, J. (2021, July 26). Defensenews.com. Hyten explains new acquisition directives to industry  ↩︎
6. Total space launches worldwide 2022 | Statista ↩︎
7. SpaceX – Wikipedia ↩︎
8. Blue Origin Becomes the First Company to Take a Paying Passenger to Space. What It Means for Investors. |Barron’s (barrons.com) ↩︎
9. Richard Branson and Virgin Galactic complete successful space flight – CBS News ↩︎
10. SpaceX Launches First Ever-Private Space Tourism Mission – TheStreet ↩︎
11. China plans to take the fight to SpaceX with its reusable rocket program (interestingengineering.com) ↩︎
12. Starlink – Wikipedia ↩︎
13. OneWeb Satellite Review 2023 | SatelliteInternet.com  ↩︎
14. Project Kuiper Review 2023: Launch Date, Specs & Analysis (satelliteinternet.com)  ↩︎
15. EU to launch its own communications satellite network – DW – 11/18/2022 ↩︎
16. China establishes company to build satellite broadband megaconstellation – SpaceNews ↩︎
17. Moon landing: US firm Intuitive Machines makes historic touchdown (bbc.com) ↩︎
18. Japan’s Moon Lander Continues to Defy Expectations (msn.com)  ↩︎
19. Chandrayaan-3: India makes historic landing near Moon’s south pole (bbc.com) ↩︎
20. Chinese Lunar Exploration Program – Wikipedia ↩︎
21. NASA Artemis ↩︎
22. Chart: The Race for the Moon Continues | Statista ↩︎
23. Emirates Lunar Mission – Wikipedia ↩︎
24. Britain and Saudi Arabia team up to harness solar power from space (thenationalnews.com) ↩︎
25. Defense Intelligence Agency. 2022 Challenges to Security in Space: Space Reliance in an Era of Competition and Expansion (February 5, 2023). ↩︎
26. New and Revised Statistics for the U.S. Space Economy, 2017–2022. ↩︎
27. NATIONAL LOW EARTH ORBIT RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY. The Low Earth Orbit Science and Technology interagency Working Group, The NATIONAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COUNCIL March 2022 ↩︎
28. IN-SPACE SERVICING, ASSEMBLY, AND MANUFACTURING NATIONAL STRATEGY, In-Space Servicing, Assembly, and Manufacturing Interagency Working Group, The National Science and Technology Council, April 2022  ↩︎
29. A NATIONAL CISLUNAR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY STRATEGY, the Cislunar Technology Strategy Interagency Working Group, The National Science and Technology Council, November 2022 ↩︎
30. Peter Garretson and Samuel Havard, “The Starship Singularity.” https://www.afpc.org/uploads/documents/Starship_(SPR)_-_2.22.23.pdf (March 1, 2023).  ↩︎
31. Lecture, General John Raymond ↩︎
32. China’s Science of Military Strategy, 2020 ↩︎

Appendix D

Acronym List

AI – Artificial Intelligence

BMC2 – Battle Management Command and Control

C2 – Command and Control

C2 – Command, Control, and Communications

CJADC2 – Combined Joint All-Domain Command and Control

DoD – Department of Defense

DS – Decision Superiority

ECLSS – Environmental Control and Life Support Systems

GDP – Gross Domestic Product

GEO – Geosynchronous Earth Orbit

HQ – Headquarters

IOFO – Images of Future Operations

ISR – Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance

ISRU – In-Situ Resource Utilization

LEO – Low Earth Orbit

ML – Machine Learning

NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organization

OODA – Observe, Orient, Decide, Act

PNT – Pointing, Navigation, and Timing

S&T – Scient and Technology

SAML – Space Access, Mobility, and Logistics

SDA – Space Domain Awareness

SFW – Space Futures Workshop

SWAC – Space Warfare Analysis Center

U.S. – United States

USSF – United States Space Force

xGEO – Beyond GEO